IBSAT 2007 ICFAI Business School Aptitude Test Dates

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Class Project Blossoms into Software that May Save Millions of Trees

Firefighters organize at the Clark Peak Fire in southeastern Arizona's Pinaleno Mountains.

What started out as a one-semester project for a UA graduate course is turning into software that could save millions of trees during wildfires.

Lewis Ntamio, now an assistant professor at Texas A&M University, got interested in developing software that would predict the direction and speed of forest fires when he was a UA Ph.D. student in 2003.

That's when Ntamio took ECE 575, Discrete Event Modeling, from Electrical and Computer Engineering (ECE) Professor Bernard Zeigler. After completing that course, Ntamio continued to pursue the research as an independent study project, even though it wasn't directly related to his Ph.D. work with Professor Suvrajeet Sen in UA Systems and Industrial Engineering.

The forest fire software project "is more like a hobby than work," Ntaimo said. "It's very real and practical and less abstract. It's invigorating to see people envisioning this when we show them the research."


The software allows firefighters to enter factors such as wind speed, wind direction, slope conditions, temperature and vegetation type (oak/chaparral, mixed conifer, etc.) into the software. Then the software creates a simulation of where the fire will go during the next several hours, allowing firefighters to focus their efforts in areas that will have the greatest effect on curbing the fire's growth.

The prototype software should be completed by December and may be used during the 2006 fire season.

The software is based on research that was originally funded by an NSF-sponsored collaboration between Sen and Zeigler. Ntaimo and Zeigler are now developing proposals to apply for funding from NSF and EPA so they can extend the software to include Ntaimo’s systems optimization research.

"This is how valuable research efforts often happen," Zeigler said. "They come out of the day-to-day, week-to-week work we do in class and in the lab. We look into various interesting things, not just those that are funded by a sponsor at the time. Eventually, a real capability emerges full-blown. That's when it may get some visibility and sponsor interest."

Ntamio now is collaborating on the project with Zeigler and Ph.D. Student Bithika Khargharia, of UA ECE, as well as with Zeigler’s former Ph. D. student, Maria Vasconcelos, of Portugal's Tropical Research Institute.

The first results from this research project were published in "Simulation Journal," Vol. 80, Issue 10, last October.

Students Win $5,000 in Cash Awards During Engineering Design Day

This confocal microscope system can measure the center thickness of hydrogel-based contact lenses to 1 mm accuracy. An interdisciplinary engineering design team designed and built the system for Vistakon, the world's leading manufacturer of contact lenses.
Student engineers won at total of $5,000 in 16 award categories at UA's 2005 Engineering Design Day on April 28.

Design Day 2005 included 60 projects from seven engineering departments, as well as from UA's multidisciplinary senior design course and from several engineering clubs.

The projects were judged by 54 practicing engineers from 34 companies.

Some Design Day projects may eventually be commercialized. Others will provide important experimental data for companies that sponsored the projects or will become integral parts of ongoing engineering research projects at UA.

Lockheed Martin is the primary sponsor of Engineering Design Day, and several other companies also sponsor awards, including PADT, Ventana Medical Systems, BRO, and Texas Instruments.

The winners included:

• Lockheed Martin Best Overall Design Award ($1,000)
Cardiac Tissue Tester



The Cardiac Tissue Tester

This device measures stress and strain values in two dimensions on cardiac tissue. Stress and strain data recorded during biaxial experiments will be used to model tissue properties. Eventually this could help in creating regenerative tissue therapy to treat patients whose hearts have been damaged during heart attacks.
Class: Interdisciplinary Design Course, ENGR 498
Sponsor: Dr. Mohamed A. Gaballa, UMC
Team members: Elizabeth Schneider, Rachael Turner, Garrett Smith, and Timothy Allen.

• Ventana Innovation in Engineering Award ($750)
Camless Valve System for IC Engine


Internal combustion engine performance is directly related to timed events, such as when air and fuel enter the engine and when exhaust gases are pushed out. Current valve-train technology cannot adapt to changing external conditions or different user needs. This project developed hardware to control and vary valve timing for both intake and exhaust gasses.
Class: Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering (AME) 412
Sponsor: Self-sponsored
Team members: Robert Kunkel, Todd Peterson, Yoichi Matsuda, Scott Brack, and Dustin Tures.

• Raytheon Best Aerospace Engineering Design Award ($500)
SensorCraft Design


This group created a conceptual design for SensorCraft, a high-endurance surveillance airplane to be used for detecting, tracking and monitoring highly camouflaged mobile targets.
Class: AME 422
Sponsor: Professor Israel Wygnanski
Team members: Jesse Blake, Scott M. Clark, Benjamin F. Wesley, Ariane M. Mortazavi, Shinichi Tokoro, Eric Russell Rosenwald, and Jeffery S. Goldstein.

• Best Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Design Award ($250)
Chiropractic Axial Traction Device



The Chiropractic Axial Traction Device

This prototype machine performs an axial traction chiropractic manipulation. The students had to design a machine that would apply less than 30 percent of the total force to the patient's face and chin. The machine also had to be portable and could apply force for a maximum distance of 2 inches.
Class: Agriculture and Biosystems Engineeering (ABE) 498
Sponsor: Circle Lazy J. Ent.
Team members: Dyan Lindsay Pratt and Brandon J. Bryce.

• Texas Instruments Best Electrical and Computer Engineering Design Award ($500)
Active Noise-Canceling Headphones


This team designed and built a set of headphones to block outside noise. The final prototype noticeably cancelled noise between 300 Hz and 1,500 Hz.
Class: Electrical and Computer Engineering (ECE) 498
Sponsor: Texas Instruments
Team members: Jeffrey Kissinger, Khoa Han, Matt Hesselbacher, Richard Fan, and Blake Shimata.

• Best Materials Science and Engineering Design Award ($250)
Synthesis of AZO Transparent Conductor by PAD Process


Students investigated polymer-assisted deposition (PAD) as a way to synthesize aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO) transparent conductors, which are used in microelectronics. AZO conductors are usually made using sol-gel formulation and deposition techniques.
Class: Materials Science and Engineering (MSE) 498
Sponsor: Ajjer Technologies
Team members: Ellen King, Andrea J. Coleman, and Chris T. Campbell.

• Best Systems and Industrial Engineering Design Award ($500)
Health Analytics EMS Scheduling


This team designed a program that maximizes the efficiency of EMT scheduling. The program is designed to make the best use of resources, which could result in cutting the costs of EMT service.
Class: Systems and Industrial Engineering (SIE) 442
Sponsor: HealthAnalytics.
Team members: Martin Vanwinkle, Kimberly Jeffries, Todd R. Roman and Amada B. Meaker.

• Lockheed Martin Best Multidisciplinary Engineering Design Award ($500)
Cryogenic Spectrophotometer Chamber


This team designed and constructed a cryogenic chamber to help test materials to be used in space-based telescopes.
Class: ENGR 498
Sponsor: Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center
Team members: Constance Fay, Bryce Furlong and Patrick Fields.

• BRO Best Optics Engineering Design Award ($500)
Focus Sensor


This team designed a system that added automatic position measuring capability to a camera that is used to measure some of the properties of silicon wafers. This system reduces the time required to take measurements and keeps the wafer surface in focus as it is moved in different directions.
Class: ENGR 498
Sponsor: KLA-Tencor
Team members: Jad Halimeh, Jason Curtis, Stephen Borota, Peter Goldstein, and Kpakpo Buabe.

• PADT Best Mechanical Engineering Design Award ($500)
Mobile Intensive Care Unit


The Mobile Intensive Care Unit (MOBI) is an on-going design project. A previous design team completed the frame and wheel assembly but didn't work on equipment mounting. This year's team attached the required medical equipment based on visibility and access requirements. MOBI is a gurney that's used to sustain heart patients while they are transported to University Medical Center.
Class: AME 412
Sponsor: University Medical Center
Team members: Victor Siordia, Ryan White, Matthew Gledhill, Kristy Pearson, and Matthew Wargo.

UA Tractor-Pull Team Building World Beater from Salvaged Auto Parts

Dyan Pratt (left) and Travis Wuertz align the transmissions on a tractor that UA students will enter in a June 2 tractor pull competition in East Moline, Ill.
"There aren't two major components on this tractor that came from the same vehicle," said Travis Wuertz as he pointed out the finer features of a Frankenstein-like machine that will soon travel to East Moline, Ill. for a one-quarter-scale tractor-pull contest.

"They give you a 16-horsepower Briggs & Stratton engine and a set of tires," said Wuertz, a mechanical engineering senior. "Then you build everything else from scratch."

He paused, reflected for a moment and added, "Of course, our scratch is a little bit different from other people's scratch."

Which is a bit of an understatement.

Most of the teams that enter this year's American Society of Agricultural Engineers' "¼-Scale Tractor Student Design Competition" will use off-the-shelf hydraulic drive systems. This allows them to run the engine to a hydraulic pump and to send power to the wheels via hydraulic hoses. This system sidesteps aligning drive shafts, dealing with mechanical transmissions, or fabricating lots of components.


A few teams also will use CV (continuously variable) transmissions, which make design and shifting easier. They work basically like an automatic transmission with a nearly infinite number of gear ratios.

UA's team is not taking the easy road because they want a tractor that offers maximum efficiency and a wide range of speeds, which are handy to have during competition. "We found that when you're hurting for traction, when you have more power than you have traction, speed makes a huge difference," Wuertz said.

Tractor pulls involve dragging a weighted sled that creates more and more drag the farther it's pulled. The tractor that can pull the sled with the greatest drag the farthest distance wins.

UA's design features a totally mechanical drive system using two transmissions and four-wheel drive to produce a tractor that can crawl at 0.75 mph or fly at 26 mph. "If we took the governor off, it would go faster — probably faster than we should go," Wuertz mused.

Wuertz estimates that UA's tractor has at least 200 hours of machine shop work in it so far. Some components are one-of-a-kind. Others are highly modified.

Take the 1985 Celica transmission, for instance. "We pulled the tranny and crankshaft from the car in about half an hour," Wuertz said. "Then we had to adapt the clutch because it has to bolt to our engine. So we took a piece of the crankshaft and welded on an extension. Then we turned it down to one-and-a-quarter inches and it will press fit into this bearing."


Travis Wuertz test fits a 1985 Celica transmission in UA's ¼-scale tractor.

The Celica transmission feeds power to a Geo Metro transmission. The result is a two-transmission drivetrain that can be geared down to about a 100-to-1 gear ratio.

Wuertz, who started working in the family-farm machine shop about the same time that he learned to walk, also has TIG welded the tractor's aluminum frame, narrowed the front differential that came from an S-10 Blazer by about 16 inches and shortened the axles.

How does the team do all the sophisticated design work for building a one-off tractor from highly modified components?

"I have a real fancy design program," Wuertz says, as he picks up a piece of chalk from the bench and kneels on the floor. "Except for sketches in class, it's mostly chalk on the floor. I don't do computers very well, and we didn't have anyone draw this up until later."

"Travis is a brilliant artist," said the team's advisor, Don Slack, head of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (ABE). "He builds guitars and has been making custom knives for about ten years. He does blacksmithing and wrought iron work. He's in engineering because he wants to know more about technology and materials so that he can apply them to art."

Or four-wheel-drive hotrods.


Dyan Pratt works on the locker that will be installed in the front differential on UA's four-wheel-drive tractor.

Dyan Pratt, who just graduated in ABE, also is a mainstay of the team. She grew up on a family farm near Maricopa, Ariz. and is an ace tractor driver, as well as a good mechanic. Last week, for instance, she was putting together the locker system for the tractor's front differential.

Building the tractor has consumed thousands of hours and now is a round-the-clock operation as the students rush to meet the contest deadline. While this would be daunting for many of us, it's not too complicated for Pratt. "When you grow up on a farm, you learn how to work — and how to drive a tractor," she observed.

This is the fourth year that UA has entered the competition. "B&G Auto Salvage in Casa Grande has given us every drivetrain part we've used for the past three years," Wuertz said, which has made it possible for the team to compete on a tight budget.

The completed tractor can be no longer than 96 inches from the rear axle to the tractor's nose and must weigh no more than 850 pounds. Last week, the team was holding off on making the driveshaft until they were sure that the tractor wouldn't be too long. "We may have to cut an inch out of the frame," Wuertz said. "That's no big deal — four cuts and four welds."

While some teams would send this kind of job out to a welding shop and their machine work out to a machinist, everything on the UA tractor is being done in the ABE machine shop at UA's Campbell Avenue Farm.

This year's competition runs from June 2 to June 5. Last year, the UA team placed fifth in the tractor pull and 12th overall. The overall competition factors in points from a written report, design review, oral presentation, and other judging.

"I would not be surprised this year if our team won the pull," Slack said.

But winning isn't the motivating factor for Slack. "They're a fun group to work with," he said. "They're just so dedicated and so full of ideas, enthusiasm and talent. This is the reason I work at the university — because of kids like this. They just really know what they're doing."

UA MAV Team First in Ornithopter, Second Overall at International Competition

UA's MAV team competed in the surveillance event at the 9th International Micro Air Vehcile Competition with an MAV built on this design. The plane has a 12-inch wingspan and is powered by an electric motor.

UA took first place in the ornithopter competition and tied for second place overall in the 9th International Micro Air Vehicle Competition, which was held May 21 in Seoul, Korea. UA tied with Korea's Konkuk University for second place.

The University of Florida, a long-time MAV powerhouse, took first place overall.

MAVs are tiny, radio-controlled airplanes — some have wingspans of only four inches — equipped with video cameras. They're designed for reconnaissance and can be used in search-and-rescue, law enforcement, military surveillance, or any situation too dangerous or time consuming for a human observer.

UA Ornithopter Flew Like a Plane
This was the second year that ornithopters participated in the event. These airplanes generate lift and forward motion with flapping wings, mimicking the aerodynamics of birds and insects.

The ornithopter competition involves building the smallest radio-controlled ornithopter that can fly the most laps around a pylon course in two minutes. The pylons were spaced about 40 feet apart and the ornithopters fly either an elliptical course around them or a figure 8 through them.


UA's MAV team has set the new standard for micro-sized, radio-controlled ornothopters.

The figure 8 laps earn twice as many points as elliptical laps, giving the edge to maneuverability over speed. The final score is calculated by dividing the number of laps flown by the ornithopter's largest dimension squared.

Before the competition flights began, aerospace engineering graduate student Bill Silin demonstrated what the UA team believes is the world's smallest radio-controlled ornithopter. With a wingspan of only seven inches, it drew lots of interest from competitors and spectators alike.

UA flew a slightly larger design, with a wingspan of about nine inches, during the competition. Silin designed and built the ornithopter, but Jeremy Tyler, who just graduated with a bachelor's degree in aerospace engineering, flew the competition laps.

"Although it was slightly larger than Bill's smallest ornithopter, it probably was still the world's second smallest radio-controlled ornithopter," Tyler said. "It was very fast, powerful and maneuverable."

Silin and the UA team have now set the new standard for micro-sized ornithopters. Only a year ago, at the 8th International MAV Competition, ornithopters had difficulty staying up in anything but still air and seemed only partially under control. (For more on last year's event, click here.)

"This year, our ornithopter flew like an airplane," said MAV team captain A.J. Kochevar. "We could fly it under complete control 300 feet away. It was that stable." Kochevar graduated with a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering and is now finishing a degree in aerospace engineering.

Surveillance Calls for Flying by Video
During the surveillance competition, teams tried to fly the smallest MAV that could return a legible image of a symbol located about 4/10ths of a mile (600 meters) from the launch point. The symbol was about six feet square and enclosed in a 3-foot-high fence.

After the UA plane was launched, Tyler flew it until it was nearly out of sight.

Then Kochevar, who was wearing video goggles that displayed an image from the plane's forward-looking video camera, took over and flew the plane as though he was sitting in its cockpit. With a wingspan of just over five inches, this plane was the smallest one entered in the surveillance competition. It was so small that the camera had to be mounted behind the propeller, lowering visibility. The plane's tiny black-and-white camera also produced washed out images in direct sunlight.

"Luckily, there was a road that went out near the target, so we could follow that and make a last-ditch effort to get to the target," Kochevar said. "Unfortunately, I got disoriented and turned left instead of right. But we did get out there. Hopefully next year my piloting skills will be better and we can get out there with a really small plane."

After the smaller plane missed the target, UA switched to a plane with a 12-inch wingspan for the second and third tries. This plane easily captured an image and returned to the staging area.

This was the smallest plane to ever acquire an image and return during an International MAV Competition. Most planes, including this year's winner, use a forward-facing camera. They fly to the target and then dive so the camera can see the target, eventually crashing near or into it.

UA's plane used a downward-facing camera and flew in what the team calls "stability augmented mode." An autopilot that the UA team designed and built in collaboration with two French MAV enthusiasts limited the plane's roll angle to 35 degrees and its pitch angle to 20 degrees. In this mode, the autopilot controls the plane's aerodynamics, making it nearly crash-proof, and the pilot steers it like a car that can travel in three dimensions.

The UA team watched the plane's progress on a computer-screen map as it radioed back its position.

"The plane just goes where you point it and this makes it very easy to fly," Tyler said. "In fact, the plane doesn't even have to be in sight." (For more information and technical details on the team's autopilot, click here.)

New Directions for the Competition
"It doesn't seem practical, as far as real-world applications, to just crash the airplane into whatever target you're trying to acquire," Kochevar noted. "We would like to see the competition changed so that you get points for either acquiring an image of a second target or bringing the plane back to the launch area."

The team also would like to see autonomous flight added to the competition. In this event, the plane would fly itself, completely hands-off, from the time it left the launch area to the target and back.

While this sounds difficult, the UA team demonstrated that it can be done. During a demonstration flight, the team switched their autopilot to fully automatic mode. The plane flew itself to the target, sent back a video image and returned to the staging area, where it was landed under manual control.

"We didn't have room for an autonomous landing," Kochevar said. "If we'd had another 100 yards of runway, it could have landed on its own. But we did demonstrate that autonomous flight is a reality and could become a separate event next year."

Tyler noted that three U.S. schools and three European schools already are capable of entering an autonomous flight competition.

The Endurance Competition
The endurance competition involved building the smallest MAV that can fly for the longest time, up to 15 minutes. The winner was determined by dividing the flight time by the MAV's largest linear dimension cubed

This year, Korea's Inha University broke the four-inch barrier for the first time, successfully flying an MAV whose longest dimension was only about 3.75 inches. This was nearly three-quarters of an inch smaller than last year's winner.

UA entered an airplane with a wingspan of about 5.1 inches and it flew for the full 15 minutes.

The endurance planes are built solely for small size and light weight and don't carry video cameras. So they're usually smaller and lighter than the planes that are entered in the surveillance competition.

The UA team hopes to build a much smaller plane for next year's competition based on an elliptically shaped wing. UA's MAVs had squared off wingtips this year, a design the team adopted about a year ago after experiencing problems with elliptical wings.

The UA team hopes to enter an improved elliptical wing next year. This design will produce less drag, which will lead to a more efficient and smaller airplane.

"The design we're working on kind of blends last year's design and this year's design," Kochevar explained. "Unfortunately, we hadn't finished testing in time for the competition, and there are some problems that we still need to work out." (For more on MAV design, click here.)

Others on the UA team in Korea were aerospace engineering master's student Motoyuki Aki, MAV team member Sean Har, and the team's advisor, Sergey Shkarayev, assistant professor of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering.

Final Results
The final results for the competition are:

Overall
1. University of Florida
2. University of Arizona
2. Konkuk University
3. Inha University
4. Brigham Young University

Ornithopter:
1. University of Arizona
2. Inha University
3. University of Florida
4. Konkuk University

Surveillance
1. Konkuk University
2. University of Florida
3. University of Arizona

Endurance
1. Inha University
2. Konkuk University
3. University of Florida
4. University of Arizona

Design Report
1. University of Florida
2. Brigham Young University
3. University of Arizona
4. Konkuk University
5. Dayton Christian High School

Participants:
Andong National University (Korea)
Brigham Young University (USA)
Chosun University (Korea)
Dayton Christian High School (USA)
Gyeong San National University (Korea)
Hankuk Aviation University (Korea)
Inha University (Korea)
Kokam RC (Korea)
Konkuk University (Korea)
Lehigh University (USA)
Rochester Institute of Technology (USA)
University of Arizona (USA)
University of Florida (USA)

UA's MAV team is sponsored by:
• ASUA (Associated Students of the University of Arizona)
• The New Nose Co., Inc.
• Texas Instruments
• U.S. Army Ft. Huachuca Battle Labs

Simple, Elegant Autopilot Keeps MAVs Flying

UA's MAV team has developed an autopilot that is much simpler and smaller than conventional ones. It was built with help from two French MAV enthusiasts, and the team hopes to eventually commercialize it.

Autopilots are computers that fly airplanes without human intervention.

UA's autopilot was designed to fly Micro Air Vehciles (MAVs), which are tiny airplanes — some have wingspans of less than six inches. They carry video cameras and are designed for reconnaissance missions. They can be used for search-and-rescue, law enforcement, military surveillance, or in any situation where sending in a human observer might be too costly or dangerous.

Commercial autopilots often have an accelerometer to measure acceleration, a pitot tube to measure airspeed, a magnetometer to measure the plane's heading, and a barometer to measure altitude.

UA's autopilot has none of these.

Instead, it has just two sensors, an infrared sensor that detects the difference between sky and ground and measures the plane's attitude toward the ground (whether it's diving, climbing or banking) and a 4 Hz GPS to measure altitude and the plane's location.


Less is More with MAV Autopilots
"A lot of autopilots use inertial sensors, accelerometers or gyros," said A.J. Kochevar, president of UA's MAV club and an aerospace engineering senior. "On a small airframe like ours, they're susceptible to exceeding their maximum sensing rate. If that happens, the autopilot doesn't know where the airplane really is in the world as far as pitch and roll are concerned."

That means it crashes.

UA's autopilot has proven very reliable and robust. It has flown autonomously (hands-off by humans) in 35 mph winds. Modelers who fly radio-controlled airplanes find it extremely difficult to keep a tiny plane in the air at these wind speeds.

"It's remarkable how well the plane flies in autonomous mode," Kochevar said. "You wouldn't know the difference between it being flown by autopilot or by a human, if you saw it in the air."

The plane also is very maneuverable when flown by autopilot and can turn 180 degrees in 50 feet.

The UA team began developing the device last September, after meeting up with two French MAV enthusiasts at the 4th International Micro Aerial Vehicle Meeting in Toulouse, France.

"We found that the autopilot we took to France was less than satisfactory, and we met a group of guys who thought their airplane was less than satisfactory," Kochevar said. "So we decided to collaborate. We helped them with aerodynamics and they helped us with avionics."

Two Microprocessors do the Work
The autopilot includes two processors. There's an 8-bit microcontroller that handles the communications needed to fly the airplane and a 128-bit microcontroller that does the navigation.

"The hardware for our autopilot is really trivial," Kochevar explained. "This has been basically a software problem."

"The reason autopilots cost a ton of money is because their software is very sophisticated," he added. "So that's where the time and energy goes — to create reliable software that always works, that gives you what you want and that flies the airplane responsively and that doesn't fail or corrupt."

The software is written in C programming language. The GPS route the plane will fly is fed into the software, which is compiled on a laptop at the launch site. Then the compiled software files are loaded into the autopilot memory.

"We've really worked to design software that will mimic the plane's flight characteristics," Kochevar said. "It really 'understands' the aerodynamics and the action it needs to take to respond in various situations."

The first autopilot weighed in at 12 grams (0.42 ounces), but it has now been pared down to eight grams (0.28 ounces). "With the next revisions, the weight should drop to 5 grams (0.18 ounces)," Kochevar said. While this drop in weight may seem trivial, it's a huge weight savings for a small plane that's powered by a tiny electric motor.

Autopilot is Part of the Big Picture
The autopilot is part of the larger MAV development program at UA, which is focusing on development of a prototype Autonomous Micro Aerial Vehicle system.

The system will include a ground station with communication tools, including uplinks and downlinks for real-time data collection and in-flight mission programming and adjustment. It also will include the autopilot system and an inter-aircraft communication system.

The GPS navigation system will be able to store several waypoints and will be capable of changing its target destination while flying. It will also be able to set up in-flight circular and oval loitering patterns.

The MAV system will have a range of at least 4 miles when unobstructed views are possible.

"Based on the success of this system, the extension for the multi-MAV flight system, and integration of other sensors (chemical, IR, etc.) will follow," said Sergey Shkarayev, who is directing UA's MAV program in the Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Department.

Kool Science Projects Worth Seeing

These kool science projects are worth seeing.They are from different sources, all selected projects.They are not given in detail how to make projects in steps but seeing them you will surely get some great project ideas.So enjoy them.Mamy of these science projects have turned out much more than just projects.


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